EFL - Enciclopedia delle Famiglie Lombarde

'''From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia''' Samuel (Samuil) Tsar (Emp eror) of Bulgaria Reign 997 – 6 October 1014 Died 6 October 1014 Pl ace of death Prilep, First Bulgarian Empire, present-day Republic of M acedonia Predecessor Roman of Bulgaria Successor Gavril Radomir Consor t Kosara, Agatha Offspring Gavril Radomir Theodora Kosara Miroslava Ka tun Anastazya Royal House Cometopuli Father Comita Nikola Mother Ripsi mia of Armenia Samuel[1] (also Samuil, representing Bulgarian: Сам уил, pronounced [samuˈil]) was the Emperor (Tsar) of the First Bul garian Empire from 997 to 6 October 1014. From 980[2] to 997, he wa s a general under Roman I of Bulgaria, the second surviving son of Emp eror Peter I of Bulgaria, and co-ruled with him, as Roman bestowed upo n him the command of the army and the effective royal authority.[3] A s Samuel struggled to preserve his country's independence from the Byz antine Empire, his rule was characterized by constant warfare agains t the Byzantines and their equally ambitious ruler Basil II. In his e arly years Samuel managed to inflict several major defeats on the Byza ntines and to launch offensive campaigns into their territory.[4] In t he late 10th century, the Bulgarian armies conquered the Serb principa lity of Duklja[5] and led campaigns against the Kingdoms of Croatia an d Hungary. But from 1001, he was forced mainly to defend the Empire ag ainst the superior Byzantine armies. Samuel died of a heart attack o n 6 October 1014, two months after the catastrophic battle of Kleidion , and Bulgaria was fully subjugated by Basil II four years later, endi ng the five decades-long Byzantine–Bulgarian conflict.[6] Samuel wa s considered "invincible in power and unsurpassable in strength".[7][8 ] Similar comments were made even in Constantinople, where John Kyriot es Geometres penned a poem offering a punning comparison between the B ulgarian Emperor and a comet which appeared in 989.[9][10] During Sam uel's reign, Bulgaria gained control of most of the Balkans (with th e notable exception of Thrace) as far as southern Greece. He moved th e capital from Skopje to Ohrid,[4][11] which had been the cultural an d military centre of southwestern Bulgaria since Boris I's rule,[12] a nd made the city the seat of the Bulgarian Patriarchate. Although Samu el's reign brought the end of the First Bulgarian Empire, he is regard ed as a heroic ruler in Bulgaria[13][14] and the Republic of Macedonia . '''The rise of the Cometopuli''' The Byzantines seize the capita l Preslav.Samuel was the fourth[15] and youngest son of count (comita ) Nikola, a Bulgarian noble, who might have been the Count of Sredet s (Sofia)[16], although other sources suggest that he was a regional c ount of the Slavic tribe Berziti somewhere in the region of Macedonia. [17] His mother was Ripsimia of Armenia[18]. Samuel and the Cometopul i rose to power, out of the disorder that occurred the Bulgarian Empir e from 966 to 971. '''Russian invasion and deposition of Boris''' Ma in article: Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria During the reign of Pete r I, Bulgaria prospered in a long lasting peace with Byzantium. This w as secured by the marriage of Peter with a byzantine princess Maria La kapina. However after Maria's her death in 963, the truce had been sha ken and Peter I sent his sons Boris and Roman in Constantinopole, as h onorary hostages, to honor the new terms of the peace treaty. [19]. Du ring these years the Byzantines and Bulgarians had entangled themselve s in a war with Kievan Rus prince Sviatoslav, who envaded Bulgaria sev eral times. After a defeat from Sviatoslav, Peter I suffered a strok e and died shortly afterward in 969 (or 970). As both of his heirs wer e in the Byzantine capital the Bulgarian throne became empty. This wa s allegedly used by Samuil and his brothers, were contemplating a revo lt in 969[20]. Boris was allowed back to Bulgaria to take his father s throne, restore order and oppose Sviatoslav, but had little success . This forced byzantine emperor John Tzimiskes to intervene. He quickl y invaded Bulgaria, defeated the Rus, and conquered the Bulgarian capi tal Preslav in 970 (971). Boris II of Bulgaria was ritually divested o f his imperial insignia in a public ceremony in Constantinople and h e and his brother Roman of Bulgaria remained in captivity. Although th e ceremony in 971 had been intended as a symbolic termination of the B ulgarian empire, the Byzantines were unable to assert their control ov er the western provinces of Bulgaria. Count Nikola, Samuil's father, w ho had close ties to the royal court in Preslav,[21] died in 970. In t he same year[2] "the sons of the Count" Samuel, David, Moses and Aaro n rebelled against John I Tzimiskes.[22]. The series of events are no t clear due to contradicting sources, but it is sure that after 971, S amuil and his brothers were the de facto rulers of the Western Bulgari an lands. In 973, the Cometopuli sent envoys to the Holy Roman Empero r Otto I in Quedlinburg in an attempt to secure the protection of thei r lands.[23] The brothers ruled together in a tetrarchy.[24] David rul ed the southernmost regions and led the defense of one of the most dan gerous border areas, around Thessaloniki and Thessaly.[24] The centre s of his possessions were Prespa and Kastoria. Moses ruled from Strumi tsa,[24] which would be an outpost for attacks on the Aegean coast an d Serres. Aaron ruled from Sredets,[24] and was to defend the main roa d from Adrianople to Belgrade, and to attack Thrace. Samuel ruled nort hwestern Bulgaria from the strong fortress of Vidin. He was also to or ganize the liberation of the conquered areas to the east, including th e old capital Preslav.[25] Some records suggest that David played a ma jor role in this tumultuous period of Bulgarian history.[26] '''War w ith Byzantium''' The Byzantine emperor John Tzimiskes returns in triu mph in Constantinople with the captured Boris II and the Preslav icons .After John I Tzimiskes died on 11 January 976, the Cometopuli launche d an assault along the whole border. Within a few weeks, however, Davi d was killed by Vlach vagrants and Moses was fatally injured by a ston e during the siege of Serres.[27] The brothers' actions to the south d etained many Byzantine troops and eased Samuel's liberation of northea stern Bulgaria; the Byzantine commander was defeated and retreated t o Crimea.[28][29] Any Bulgarian nobles and officials who had not oppos ed the Byzantine conquest of the region were executed, and the war con tinued north of the Danube until the enemy was scattered and Bulgaria n rule was restored.[30] After suffering these defeats in the Balkans , the Byzantine Empire descended into civil war. The commander of th e Asian army, Bardas Scleros, rebelled in Asia Minor and sent troops u nder his son Romanus in Thrace to besiege Constantinople. The new Empe ror Basil II did not have enough manpower to fight both the Bulgarian s and the rebels and resorted to treason, conspiracy and complicated d iplomatic plots.[31] Basil II made many promises to the Bulgarians an d Scleros to divert them from allying against him.[32] Aaron, the elde st living Cometopulus, was tempted by an alliance with the Byzantine s and the opportunity to seize power in Bulgaria for himself. He hel d land in Thrace, a region potentially subject to the Byzantines threa t. Basil reached an agreement with Aaron, who asked to marry Basil's s ister to seal it. Basil instead sent the wife of one of his official s with the bishop of Sebaste. However, the deceit was uncovered and th e bishop was killed.[33] Nonetheless, negotiations proceeded and concl uded in a peace agreement. The historian Scylitzes wrote that Aaron wa nted sole power and "sympathized with the Romans".[34] Samuel learne d of the conspiracy and the clash between the two brothers was inevita ble. The quarrel broke out in the vicinity of Dupnitsa on 14 June 97 6 and ended with the annihilation of Aaron's family. Only his son, Iva n Vladislav, survived because Samuel's son Gavril Radomir pleaded on h is behalf.[35] From that moment on, practically all power and authorit y in the state was held by Samuel and the danger of an internal confli ct was all but eliminated. However, another theory suggests that Aaro n participated in the battle of the Gates of Trajan which took place t en years later. According to that theory Aaron was killed on 14 June 9 87 or 988.[36][37] '''Co-rule with Roman''' Main article: Battle o f the Gates of Trajan After the Byzantine plan to use Aaron to caus e instability in Bulgaria failed, they tried to encourage the rightfu l heirs to the throne,[38] Boris II and Roman, to oppose Samuel. Basi l II hoped that they would win the support of the nobles and isolate S amuel or perhaps even start a Bulgarian civil war.[39] Boris and Roma n were sent back in 986[40] but while they were passing through a fore st near the border, Boris was killed by Bulgarian guards who were misl ed by his Byzantine clothing. Roman, who was walking some distance beh ind, managed to identify himself to the guards.[41] Roman was taken t o Vidin, where he was proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria.[42] Samuel becam e his first lieutenant and general and together they gathered an arm y and fought the Byzantines.[43] During his captivity, Roman had bee n castrated on the orders of John I Tzimiskes so that he would not hav e heirs. Thus Samuel was certain to eventually succeed Roman. The ne w emperor entrusted Samuel with the state administration and became oc cupied with church and religious affairs.[44] During the civil wars i n the Byzantine Empire, the Bulgarians not only regained their positio ns in the Balkans, but advanced deep into enemy territory.As the mai n effort of Basil II were concentrated against the rebel Skleros, Samu el's armies attacked the European possessions of the Byzantine Empire . Samuel invaded not only Thrace and the area of Thessaloniki, but als o Thessaly, Hellas and Peloponnese. Many Byzantine fortresses fell und er Bulgarian rule.[45] Samuel wanted to seize the important fortress o f Larissa, which controlled the key routes in Thessaly, and from 977 t o 983, the town was blockaded. After starvation forced the Byzantine s to surrender,[11] the population was deported to the interior of Bul garia and the males were forced to enlist in the Bulgarian army.[46] A lthough Basil II sent forces to the region, they were defeated, and th e conquest of Larissa marked the loss of an important Byzantine strong hold in that part of the peninsula. With this victory, Bulgaria had ga ined influence over most of the southwestern Balkans, although it di d not occupy these territories. From Larissa, Samuel took the relics o f Saint Achilleios, which were laid in a specially built church of th e same name on an island in Lake Prespa.[47][48][49] "Even if the su n would have come down, I would have never thought that the Moesian [B ulgarian] arrows were stronger than the Avzonian [Roman, Byzantine] sp ears. ... And when you, Phaethon [Sun], descend to the earth with you r gold-shining chariot, tell the great soul of the Caesar: The Danub e [Bulgaria] took the crown of Rome. The arrows of the Moesians brok e the spears of the Avzonians." John Kyriotes Geometres on the battl e of the Gates of Trajan.[50]The Bulgarian successes in the west raise d fears in Constantinople, and after serious preparations, Basil II la unched a campaign into the very centre of the Bulgarian Empire[51] t o distract Samuel from southern Greece.[52][53] The Byzantine army pas sed through the mountains around Ihtiman and besieged Sofia in 986. Fo r 20 days, the Byzantines assaulted the city, but their attacks prove d fruitless and costly: several times, the Bulgarians came out of th e city, killed many enemy soldiers and captured draught animals and ho rses. Eventually, the Bulgarian troops burned the siege equipment of t he Byzantine army, forcing Basil II to withdraw to Thrace, but on 17 A ugust 986,[54] while passing through the mountains, the Byzantine arm y was routed at the Trajan's Gate Pass. This was a significant blow fo r Basil,[55][56] who was one of the few to return to Constantinople; h is personal treasure was captured by the victors.[57][58] After the d efeat, the rebellion of Bardas Phocas diverted the efforts of the Byza ntine Empire into another civil war.[59][60][61] Samuel seized the opp ortunity and began to exert pressure on Thessaloniki.[62][63] Basil I I sent a large army to the town and appointed a new governor, Gregorio s Taronites,[64] but he was powerless to stop the Bulgarian advance. B y 989, the Bulgarian troops had penetrated deep into Byzantine territo ry,[65] and seized many fortresses, including such important cities a s Veria and Servia. In the south, the Bulgarians marched throughout Ep irus and in the west they seized the area of modern Durrës (medieva l Dyrrhachium or Drach) on the Adriatic Sea.[66][67][68] In 989, Phoc as was killed and his followers surrendered, and the following year Ba sil II reached an agreement with Skleros.[69] The Byzantines focused t heir attention on Bulgaria,[70] and counter-attacked in 991.[71][72] T he Bulgarian army was defeated and Roman was captured while Samuel man aged to escape.[73] The Byzantines conquered some areas; in 995, howev er, the Arabs invaded Asia Minor and Basil II was forced to move man y of his troops to combat this new threat. Samuel quickly regained th e lost lands and advanced south. In 996, he defeated the Byzantines i n the battle of Thessaloniki. During the battle, Thessaloniki's govern or, Gregorios, perished and his son Ashot was captured.[74] Elated b y this success, the Bulgarians continued south. They marched through T hessaly, overcame the defensive wall at Thermopylae and entered the Pe loponnese, devastating everything on their way.[75] The Bulgarian def eat at Spercheios.As a response, a Byzantine army under Nikephorus Ura nos was sent after the Bulgarians, who returned north to meet it. Th e two armies met near the flooded river of Spercheios. The Byzantine s found a place to ford, and on the night of 19 July 996 they surprise d the unprepared Bulgarian army and routed it in the battle of Sperche ios.[76] Samuel's arm was wounded and he barely escaped captivity; h e and his son allegedly feigned death.[77] After nightfall they heade d for Bulgaria and walked 400 kilometres (249 mi) home. Research of Sa muel's grave suggests that the bone in his arm healed at an angle of 1 40° but remained crippled.[78] '''Emperor''' In 997, Roman died i n captivity in Constantinople, ending the line of rulers started by Kr um. Because of the war with Byzantium, it was dangerous to leave the t hrone vacant for long, and Samuel was chosen as the new Emperor of Bul garia because he had the closest relations to the deceased emperor an d was Roman's long-standing military commander.[79] The presbyter of D uklja also marked the event: "By that time among the Bulgarian peopl e rose one Samuel, who proclaimed himself Emperor. He led a long war a gainst the Byzantines and expelled them from the whole territory of Bu lgaria, so that the Byzantines did not dare to approach it."[80] "Abo ve the comet scorched the sky, below the comet[opoulos] (Samuel) burn s the West." John Kyriotes Geometres[9]Constantinople would not recog nize the new emperor, as for the Byzantines Boris II's abdication symb olized the official end of Bulgaria and Samuel was considered a mere r ebel. Instead Samuel sought recognition from the Pope, which would b e a serious blow to the position of the Byzantines in the Balkans an d would weaken the influence of the Patriarch of Constantinople, there by benefiting both the See of Rome and Bulgaria. Samuel possibly recei ved his imperial crown from Pope Gregory V.[81] '''War against Serb s and Croats''' In 998, Samuel launched a major campaign against th e Serbian principality of Duklja to prevent an alliance between Princ e Jovan Vladimir and the Byzantines. When the Bulgarian troops reache d Duklja, the Serbian prince and his people withdrew to the mountains . Samuel left part of the army at the foot of the mountains and led th e remaining soldiers to besiege the coastal fortress of Ulcinj. In a n effort to prevent bloodshed, he asked Jovan Vladimir to surrender. A fter the prince refused, some Serb nobles offered their services to th e Bulgarians and, when it became clear that further resistance was fru itless, the Serbs surrendered. Jovan Vladimir was exiled to Samuel's p alaces in Prespa.[82] The wedding of Ashot and Samuel's daughter Miro slava. The Bulgarian troops proceeded to pass through Dalmatia, takin g control of Kotor and journeying to Dubrovnik. Although they failed t o take Dubrovnik, they devastated the surrounding villages. The Bulgar ian army then attacked Croatia in support of the rebel princes Krešim ir III and Gojslav and advanced northwest as far as Split, Trogir an d Zadar, then northeast through Bosnia and Raška and returned to Bulg aria.[82] This Croato-Bulgarian War allowed Samuel to install vassal m onarchs in Croatia. Samuel's daughter Theodora Kosara fell in love wi th the captive Jovan Vladimir. The couple married after gaining Samuel 's approval, and Jovan returned to his lands as a Bulgarian official a long with his uncle Dragomir, whom Samuel trusted.[83] Meanwhile, Prin cess Miroslava fell in love with the Byzantine noble captive Ashot an d threatened to commit suicide if she was not allowed to marry him. Sa muel conceded and appointed Ashot governor of Dyrrhachium.[84] Samue l also sealed an alliance with the Magyars when his eldest son and hei r, Gavril Radomir, married the daughter of the Hungarian Grand Princ e Géza.[85] '''Advance of the Byzantines''' The beginning of the ne w millennium saw a turn in the course of Byzantine-Bulgarian warfare.[ 86] Basil II had amassed an army larger and stronger than that of th e Bulgarians: determined to definitively conquer Bulgaria, he moved mu ch of the battle-seasoned military forces from the eastern campaigns a gainst the Arabs to the Balkans[87][88] and Samuel was forced to defen d rather than attack.[89] In 1001, Basil II sent a large army under t he patrician Theodorokanos and Nicephorus Xiphias to the north of th e Balkan Mountains to seize the main Bulgarian fortresses in the area . The Byzantine troops recaptured Preslav and Pliska,[90] putting nort h-eastern Bulgaria once again under Byzantine rule. The following year , they struck in the opposite direction, marching through Thessalonik i to tear off Thessaly and the southernmost parts of the Bulgarian Emp ire. Although the Bulgarian commander of the fortress of Veroia, Dobro mir, was married to one of Samuel's nieces, he voluntarily surrendere d the fort and joined the Byzantines.[91] The Byzantines also capture d the fortress of Kolidron without a fight, but its commander Dimita r Tihon managed to retreat with his soldiers and join Samuel.[92] Th e next town, Servia, did not fall so easily; its governor Nikulitsa or ganized the defenders well. They fought until the Byzantines penetrate d the walls and forced them to surrender.[93] Nikulitsa was taken to C onstantinople and given the high court title of patrician, but he soo n escaped and rejoined the Bulgarians. He attempted to retake Servia , but the siege was unsuccessful and he was captured again and impriso ned.[94] Meanwhile, Basil II's campaign reconquered many towns in The ssaly. He forced the Bulgarian population of the conquered areas to re settle in the Voleron area between the Mesta and Maritsa rivers. Edess a resisted for weeks but was conquered following a long siege. The pop ulation was moved to Voleron and its governor Dragshan was taken to Th essaloniki, where he was betrothed to the daughter of a local noble. U nwilling to be married to an enemy, Dragshan three times tried to fle e to Bulgaria and was eventually executed.[95] '''War with Hungary'' ' Main article: Bulgarian-Hungarian Wars Map of Bulgaria in its larg est extension during Samuel's reign circa 1000.[23]The Byzantine-Bulga rian conflict reached its apex in 1003, when Hungary became involved . Since the beginning of the 9th century, the Bulgarian territory ha d stretched beyond the Carpathian Mountains as far as the Tisza Rive r and the middle Danube. During the reign of Samuel, the governor of t hese northwestern parts was Duke Ahtum, the grandson of Duke Glad, wh o had been defeated by the Hungarians in 930s. Ahtum commanded a stron g army and firmly defended the northwestern borders of the Empire. H e also built many churches and monasteries through which he spread Chr istianity in Transylvania.[96][97] Although Gavril Radomir's marriag e to the daughter of the Hungarian ruler had established friendly rela tions between the two strongest states of the Danube area, the relatio nship deteriorated after Géza's death. The Bulgarians supported Gyul a and Koppány as rulers instead of Géza's son Stephen I. As a resul t of this conflict, the marriage between Gavril Radomir and the Hungar ian princess was dissolved. The Hungarians then attacked Ahtum, who ha d directly backed the pretenders for the Hungarian crown. Stephen I co nvinced Hanadin, Ahtum's right-hand man, to help in the attack. When t he conspiracy was uncovered Hanadin fled and joined the Hungarian forc es.[98] At the same time, a strong Byzantine army besieged Vidin, Ahtu m's seat. Although many soldiers were required to participate in the d efense of the town, Ahtum was occupied with the war to the north. Afte r several months he died in battle when his troops were defeated by th e Hungarians.[99] As a result of the war, Bulgarian influence to the n orthwest of the Danube diminished. '''Further Byzantine successes'' ' The first decade of the new millennium was abundant in constant blo ody battles, sieges and skirmishes. This picture shows a Byzantine vic tory in that period.The Byzantines took advantage of the Bulgarian tro ubles in the north. In 1003, Basil II led a large army to Vidin, north western Bulgaria's most important town. After an eight-month siege, th e Byzantines ultimately captured the fortress,[100] allegedly due to b etrayal by the local bishop.[101] The commanders of the town had repul sed all previous attempts to break their defence, including the use o f Greek fire.[92] While Basil's forces were engaged there, Samuel stru ck in the opposite direction: on 15 August he attacked Adrianople an d plundered the area.[102] Basil II decided to return to Constantinop le afterwards, but, fearing an encounter with the Bulgarian army on th e main road to his capital, he used an alternate route.[citation neede d] The Byzantines marched south through the Morava valley and reache d a key Bulgarian city, Skopje, in 1004. The Bulgarian army was campin g on the opposite side of the Vardar River. After finding a ford and c rossing the river, Basil II attacked and defeated Samuel's unsuspectin g army, using the same tactics employed at Spercheios.[103] The Byzant ines continued east and besieged the fortress of Pernik. Its governor , Krakra, was not seduced by Basil's promises of a noble title and wea lth, and successfully defended the fortress. The Byzantines withdrew t o Thrace after suffering heavy losses.[100][104] In the same year, Sa muel undertook a march against Thessaloniki. His men ambushed and capt ured its governor, Ioannes Chaldus,[92][105] but this success could no t compensate for the losses the Bulgarians had suffered in the past fo ur years. The setbacks in the war demoralized some of Samuel's militar y commanders, especially the captured Byzantine nobles. Samuel's son-i n-law Ashot, the governor of Dyrrhachium, made contact with the loca l Byzantines and the influential John Chryselios, Samuel's father-in-l aw. Ashot and his wife boarded one of the Byzantine ships that were be leaguering the town and fled to Constantinople. Meanwhile, Chryselio s surrendered the city to the Byzantine commander Eustathios Daphnomel es in 1005, securing the title of patrician for his sons.[84][106] I n 1006 – 1007, Basil II penetrated deep into the Bulgarian-ruled lan ds[107] and in 1009 Samuel's forces were defeated at Kreta, east of Th essaloniki.[108] During the next years, Basil launched annual campaign s into Bulgarian territory, devastating everything on his way.[109] Al though there was still no decisive battle, it was clear that the end o f the Bulgarian resistance was drawing nearer; the evidence was the fi erceness of the military engagements and the constant campaigns of bot h sides which devastated the Bulgarian and Byzantine realms.[108][110] [clarification needed] '''Disaster at Kleidion''' Main article: Batt le of Kleidion The battle of Kleidion Kleidon Aftermath: Manasses Chr onicleIn 1014, Samuel resolved to stop Basil before he could invade Bu lgarian territory. Since the Byzantines usually used the valley of th e Strumitsa River for their invasions into Bulgaria, Samuel built a th ick wooden wall in the gorges around the village of Klyuch (also Kleid ion, "key") to bar the enemy's way. When Basil II launched his next c ampaign in the summer of 1014, his army suffered heavy casualties duri ng the assaults of the wall. Meanwhile, Samuel sent forces under his g eneral Nestoritsa to attack Thessaloniki so as to distract Basil's for ces away from this campaign. Nestoritsa was defeated near the city[111 ] by its governor Botaniates, who later joined the main Byzantine arm y near Klyuch.[112] After several days of continuous attempts to brea k through the wall, one Byzantine commander, the governor of Plovdiv N icephorus Xiphias, found a by-pass and, on 29 July, attacked the Bulga rians from the rear.[109] Despite the desperate resistance the Byzanti nes overwhelmed the Bulgarian army and captured around 14,000 soldiers ,[113] according to some sources even 15,000[114] Basil II immediatel y sent forces under his favourite commander Theophylactus Botaniates t o pursue the surviving Bulgarians, but the Byzantines were defeated i n an ambush by Gavril Radomir, who personally killed Botaniates. Afte r the Battle of Kleidion, on the order of Basil II the captured Bulgar ian soldiers were blinded; one of every 100 men was left one-eyed so a s to lead the rest home.[115][116] The blinded soldiers were sent bac k to Samuel who reportedly had a heart attack upon seeing them. He die d two days later, on 15 October 1014.[109] This savagery gave the Byza ntine emperor his byname Boulgaroktonos ("Bulgar-slayer" in Greek: Β